C

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    printf("Hello, World!\n");
    return 0;
}

Creating Variables

In C, variables are used to store data that can be manipulated within a program. Here's a comprehensive guide on creating and working with variables in C:

Syntax for Variable Declaration and Initialization

Declaration:

type variable_name;

Example:

int number;
char letter;
float salary;

Initialization:

variable_name = value;

Example:

number = 10;
letter = 'A';
salary = 50000.0;

Declaration and Initialization Combined:

type variable_name = value;

Example:

int age = 25;
double pi = 3.14159;
char grade = 'A';

Rules for Variable Names

Variable names must start with a letter (a-z, A-Z) or an underscore (_).
Subsequent characters can be letters, digits (0-9), or underscores.
Variable names are case-sensitive (myVar and myvar are different).
Variable names cannot be C reserved keywords (e.g., int, return, void).

Examples:

int age;
char _grade;
float salary_2024;

Variable Scope

The scope of a variable is the part of the program where the variable is accessible. Variables in C can be:

Local Variables: Declared inside a function or a block and accessible only within that function or block.

void myFunction() {
    int localVar = 5;
    printf("%d", localVar);
}

Global Variables: Declared outside of all functions and accessible from any function within the program.

int globalVar = 10;

void myFunction() {
    printf("%d", globalVar);
}

int main() {
    myFunction(); // Outputs: 10
    return 0;
}

Constants

Constants are variables whose values cannot be changed once assigned. They are declared using the const keyword.

Example:

const int DAYS_IN_WEEK = 7;
const float PI = 3.14159;

Default Values

In C, uninitialized local variables contain garbage values, while global and static variables are initialized to zero by default.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int globalVar;  // default value 0

int main() {
    int localVar;  // contains garbage value
    printf("Global Variable: %d\n", globalVar);
    printf("Local Variable: %d\n", localVar);
    return 0;
}

Declare Many Variables with or without Values

You can declare multiple variables of the same type in a single line, separating them with commas. You can also initialize them either at the time of declaration or later.

Examples:

// Declaring multiple variables without values
int a, b, c;

// Declaring and initializing some variables
int x = 10, y, z = 30;

One Value to Multiple Variables

You can assign the same value to multiple variables by chaining the assignment operator.

Example:

int m, n, o;
m = n = o = 50;

Creating Comments

Comments in C are non-executable statements that are used to describe and explain the code. They are essential for making the code more readable and maintainable. C supports two types of comments:

1. Single-Line Comments

Single-line comments start with two forward slashes (//). Everything following // on that line is considered a comment.

Syntax:

// This is a single-line comment
int x = 10; // x is initialized to 10

2. Multi-Line Comments

Multi-line comments start with /* and end with */. Everything between /* and */ is considered a comment, regardless of how many lines it spans.

Syntax:

/*
 This is a multi-line comment.
 It can span multiple lines.
*/
int y = 20; /* y is initialized to 20 */

Example Usage

Single-Line Comment Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    // Print Hello, World!
    printf("Hello, World!\n"); // This prints the string to the console
    return 0;
}

Multi-Line Comment Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    /*
     This is a simple C program
     that prints Hello, World!
     to the console.
    */
    printf("Hello, World!\n");
    return 0;
}

These examples illustrate how to use single-line and multi-line comments in C to make the code more readable and maintainable.

Basic Input and Output in C

In C, input and output operations are performed using standard library functions. The most commonly used functions for basic input and output are printf and scanf.

1. Output using `printf`

The printf function is used to print text and variables to the console.

Syntax:

printf("format string", variable1, variable2, ...);

Format Specifiers:

%d or %i - for integers
%f - for floating-point numbers
%lf - for double-precision floating-point numbers
%c - for characters
%s - for strings

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    int age = 25;
    float salary = 50000.0;
    double pi = 3.141592653589793;
    char grade = 'A';
    char name[] = "John";

    printf("Age: %d\n", age);
    printf("Salary: %.2f\n", salary);
    printf("Pi: %.15lf\n", pi);
    printf("Grade: %c\n", grade);
    printf("Name: %s\n", name);

    return 0;
}

2. Input using `scanf`

The scanf function is used to read formatted input from the console.

Syntax:

scanf("format string", &variable1, &variable2, ...);

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    int age;
    float salary;
    double pi;
    char grade;
    char name[50];

    printf("Enter age: ");
    scanf("%d", &age);

    printf("Enter salary: ");
    scanf("%f", &salary);

    printf("Enter pi value: ");
    scanf("%lf", &pi);

    printf("Enter grade: ");
    scanf(" %c", &grade);  // Note the space before %c to consume any leftover newline character

    printf("Enter name: ");
    scanf("%s", name);  // Reads a single word, stops at whitespace

    printf("\nYou entered:\n");
    printf("Age: %d\n", age);
    printf("Salary: %.2f\n", salary);
    printf("Pi: %.15lf\n", pi);
    printf("Grade: %c\n", grade);
    printf("Name: %s\n", name);

    return 0;
}

Important Points

The & operator is used in scanf to pass the address of the variable where the input will be stored.
When reading characters with scanf, it's important to handle the newline character left in the input buffer.
scanf reads strings up to the first whitespace character. For reading a line of text, functions like fgets can be used.

Reading a Line of Text with fgets:

Syntax:

fgets(buffer, size, stdin);

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    char name[50];

    printf("Enter your full name: ");
    fgets(name, sizeof(name), stdin);  // Reads a line of text including spaces

    printf("Your name is: %s", name);

    return 0;
}

Using `getchar` and `putchar` for Character Input and Output

getchar Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    char ch;

    printf("Enter a character: ");
    ch = getchar();

    printf("You entered: ");
    putchar(ch);
    printf("\n");

    return 0;
}

putchar Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    char ch = 'A';

    printf("The character is: ");
    putchar(ch);
    printf("\n");

    return 0;
}

Data Types in C

In C programming, data types specify the type of data that variables can store. C supports several basic and derived data types, each with specific properties. Here's a comprehensive guide to data types in C:

1. Primitive Data Types

Integer Types

int: Standard integer type, typically 4 bytes.

Example:

  int numInt = 100000;

short: Short integer type, typically 2 bytes.

Example:

  short numShort = 1000;

long: Long integer type, varies by system (commonly 4 or 8 bytes).

Example:

  long numLong = 10000000000L;

long long: Long long integer type, typically 8 bytes (C99 and later).

Example:

  long long bigNumber = 123456789012345LL;

Floating-Point Types

float: Single-precision floating-point, typically 4 bytes.

Example:

  float numFloat = 3.14f;

double: Double-precision floating-point, typically 8 bytes.

Example:

  double numDouble = 3.14159;

long double: Extended precision floating-point, varies by system.

Example:

  long double extendedPi = 3.14159265358979323846L;

Character Type

char: Character type, typically 1 byte. Stores ASCII values (0 to 127) or UTF-8 characters.

Example:

  char letter = 'A';

Boolean Type

_Bool or bool: Represents true or false values (0 or 1).
- To use boolean type, include <stdbool.h> header file.

Example:

  #include <stdbool.h>
  bool isValid = true;

2. Derived Data Types

Array

Syntax: type array_name[size];

Example:

  int numbers[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};

Pointer

Syntax: type *pointer_name;

Example:

  int *ptr;

Structure

Syntax:

  struct structure_name {
      type member1;
      type member2;
      // ...
  };

Example:

  struct Person {
      char name[50];
      int age;
      float salary;
  };

Booleans in C

In C, booleans are typically represented using integer types, where 0 represents false and any non-zero value represents true. Let's explore how booleans are handled in C programming:

1. Boolean Representation

In C, there is no dedicated boolean type like in some other languages. Instead, integers (int) are commonly used to represent boolean values.

_Bool Type: Defined in C standard as a data type capable of holding only 0 (false) or 1 (true).

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    _Bool b1 = 1;  // true
    _Bool b2 = 0;  // false

    printf("b1: %d\n", b1);  // Output: 1 (true)
    printf("b2: %d\n", b2);  // Output: 0 (false)

    return 0;
}

Using stdbool.h: Introduced in C99, stdbool.h provides a clearer representation with bool, true, and false.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdbool.h>

int main() {
    bool isValid = true;
    bool isReady = false;

    printf("isValid: %d\n", isValid);  // Output: 1 (true)
    printf("isReady: %d\n", isReady);  // Output: 0 (false)

    return 0;
}

2. Boolean Evaluation

In C, expressions are evaluated to true (1) or false (0). Here are some examples of expressions and their boolean evaluations:

Integer and Float Values: Any non-zero integer or non-zero floating-point value is evaluated as true. Zero (0) and zero as float (0.0) are evaluated as false.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    int num = 10;
    float salary = 0.0;

    if (num) {
        printf("num is true\n");
    } else {
        printf("num is false\n");
    }

    if (salary) {
        printf("salary is true\n");
    } else {
        printf("salary is false\n");
    }

    return 0;
}

Output:

num is true
salary is false

3. Null Pointer Evaluation

In C, a null pointer is evaluated as false in boolean context. A null pointer is typically represented as (type *)0.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    int *ptr = NULL;

    if (ptr) {
        printf("ptr is not NULL\n");
    } else {
        printf("ptr is NULL\n");
    }

    return 0;
}

Output:

ptr is NULL

Type Casting: Implicit and Explicit

In C programming, type casting refers to converting a value from one data type to another. There are two types of type casting: implicit and explicit. Let's explore each in detail:

1. Implicit Type Casting (Automatic Type Conversion)

Implicit type casting occurs automatically by the compiler when compatible types are mixed in expressions. It promotes smaller data types to larger data types to avoid loss of data. It's also known as automatic type conversion.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    int numInt = 10;
    double numDouble = 3.5;

    double result = numInt + numDouble;  // Implicitly converts numInt to double

    printf("Result: %.2lf\n", result);  // Output: 13.50

    return 0;
}

In this example, numInt (an integer) is implicitly converted to a double before performing the addition with numDouble.

2. Explicit Type Casting (Type Conversion)

Explicit type casting is performed by the programmer using casting operators to convert a value from one data type to another. It allows for precise control over the type conversion process but can lead to data loss if not used carefully.

Syntax:

(type) expression

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    double numDouble = 3.5;
    int numInt;

    numInt = (int)numDouble;  // Explicitly casts numDouble to int

    printf("numInt: %d\n", numInt);  // Output: 3

    return 0;
}

In this example, numDouble (a double) is explicitly cast to an int. The decimal part is truncated, resulting in numInt being 3.

Arrays in C

Arrays in C are collections of variables of the same type that are accessed by indexing. They provide a way to store multiple elements under a single name.

1. Declaring Arrays

To declare an array in C, specify the type of elements it will hold and the number of elements enclosed in square brackets [].

Syntax:

type arrayName[arraySize];

type: Data type of the array elements.
arrayName: Name of the array.
arraySize: Number of elements in the array.

Example:

int numbers[5];  // Array of 5 integers

2. Initializing Arrays

Arrays can be initialized either during declaration or after declaration using assignment statements.

Example:

int numbers[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};  // Initializing during declaration

// Initializing after declaration
int moreNumbers[3];
moreNumbers[0] = 10;
moreNumbers[1] = 20;
moreNumbers[2] = 30;

3. Accessing Array Elements

Array elements are accessed using zero-based indexing, where the first element is at index 0.

Example:

int numbers[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
printf("First element: %d\n", numbers[0]);   // Output: 1
printf("Second element: %d\n", numbers[1]);  // Output: 2

4. Modifying Array Elements

Array elements can be modified by assigning new values to specific indices.

Example:

int numbers[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
numbers[2] = 10;  // Modify the third element
printf("Modified third element: %d\n", numbers[2]);  // Output: 10

5. Multidimensional Arrays

C supports multidimensional arrays, which are arrays of arrays. They are useful for storing tabular data or matrices.

Example:

int matrix[3][3] = {
    {1, 2, 3},
    {4, 5, 6},
    {7, 8, 9}
};

printf("Element at row 2, column 3: %d\n", matrix[1][2]);  // Output: 6

6. Passing Arrays to Functions

When passing arrays to functions, C passes them by reference. This means any modifications made to the array within the function affect the original array.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

void printArray(int arr[], int size) {
    for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
        printf("%d ", arr[i]);
    }
    printf("\n");
}

int main() {
    int numbers[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
    printArray(numbers, 5);  // Pass array and its size to function
    return 0;
}

Strings in C

In C programming, strings are arrays of characters terminated by a null ('\0') character. Let's explore how to work with strings, including input, output, and manipulation:

1. Declaring and Initializing Strings

Strings in C are arrays of characters. They can be declared and initialized in several ways:

Syntax:

char strName[size];

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    // Declaring and initializing a string
    char greeting[6] = {'H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', '\0'};

    // Alternatively, using string literal (implicitly adds '\0')
    char message[] = "Welcome";

    printf("Greeting: %s\n", greeting);  // Output: Hello
    printf("Message: %s\n", message);    // Output: Welcome

    return 0;
}

2. String Input with `scanf()`

To input a string with spaces in C, fgets() from <stdio.h> is often used instead of scanf() because scanf() stops reading at the first space. Here’s how to use fgets():

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    char name[50];

    printf("Enter your name: ");
    fgets(name, sizeof(name), stdin);  // Read input including spaces

    printf("Hello, %s!\n", name);

    return 0;
}

3. String Functions

C provides several library functions for manipulating strings, declared in <string.h>.

strlen(): Calculates the length of a string.

Example:

  #include <stdio.h>
  #include <string.h>

  int main() {
      char str[] = "Hello";
      int len = strlen(str);

      printf("Length of '%s' is %d\n", str, len);  // Output: Length of 'Hello' is 5

      return 0;
  }

strcpy(): Copies one string to another.

Example:

  #include <stdio.h>
  #include <string.h>

  int main() {
      char src[] = "Hello";
      char dest[20];

      strcpy(dest, src);

      printf("Copied string: %s\n", dest);  // Output: Copied string: Hello

      return 0;
  }

strcat(): Concatenates two strings.

Example:

  #include <stdio.h>
  #include <string.h>

  int main() {
      char str1[20] = "Hello";
      char str2[] = " World";

      strcat(str1, str2);

      printf("Concatenated string: %s\n", str1);  // Output: Concatenated string: Hello World

      return 0;
  }

strcmp(): Compares two strings.

Example:

  #include <stdio.h>
  #include <string.h>

  int main() {
      char str1[] = "Hello";
      char str2[] = "Hello";

      if (strcmp(str1, str2) == 0) {
          printf("Strings are equal\n");
      } else {
          printf("Strings are not equal\n");
      }

      return 0;
  }

4. Handling String Input Safely

When using fgets() for string input, ensure buffer overflow doesn't occur by specifying the maximum length of input to read.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    char sentence[100];

    printf("Enter a sentence: ");
    fgets(sentence, sizeof(sentence), stdin);  // Read up to 99 characters plus '\0'

    printf("You entered: %s\n", sentence);

    return 0;
}

5. Null-Terminated Strings

C strings are null-terminated, meaning they end with a null character '\0'. This character indicates the end of the string and is automatically added when using string literals.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    char message[] = "Hello";  // Automatically includes '\0'

    // Printing characters until '\0' is encountered
    for (int i = 0; message[i] != '\0'; ++i) {
        printf("%c ", message[i]);
    }
    printf("\n");

    return 0;
}

Operators in C

Operators in C are symbols used to perform operations on variables and values. They are categorized into several types based on their functionality.

Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic operators are used for basic mathematical operations.

Operator	Name	Description	Example
`+`	Addition	Adds two operands	`x + y`
`-`	Subtraction	Subtracts the right operand from the left	`x - y`
`*`	Multiplication	Multiplies two operands	`x * y`
`/`	Division	Divides the left operand by the right operand	`x / y`
`%`	Modulus	Returns the remainder of the division	`x % y`
`++`	Increment	Increases the value of operand by 1	`x++` or `++x`
`--`	Decrement	Decreases the value of operand by 1	`x--` or `--x`

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    int a = 10, b = 3;
    printf("a + b = %d\n", a + b);   // Output: 13
    printf("a / b = %d\n", a / b);   // Output: 3
    printf("a %% b = %d\n", a % b);  // Output: 1 (Modulus operation)

    int x = 5;
    x++;
    printf("x++ = %d\n", x);         // Output: 6

    int y = 8;
    y--;
    printf("y-- = %d\n", y);         // Output: 7

    return 0;
}

Assignment Operators

Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables and perform operations.

Operator	Name	Description	Example
`=`	Assignment	Assigns the value on the right to the variable on the left	`x = 5`
`+=`	Addition	Adds right operand to the left operand and assigns the result to the left	`x += 3`
`-=`	Subtraction	Subtracts right operand from the left operand and assigns the result to the left	`x -= 3`
`*=`	Multiplication	Multiplies right operand with the left operand and assigns the result to the left	`x *= 3`
`/=`	Division	Divides left operand by right operand and assigns the result to the left	`x /= 3`
`%=`	Modulus	Computes modulus of left operand with right operand and assigns the result to the left	`x %= 3`

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    int x = 10;
    x += 5;
    printf("x += 5: %d\n", x);   // Output: 15

    return 0;
}

Comparison Operators

Comparison operators are used to compare values.

Operator	Name	Description	Example
`==`	Equal	Checks if two operands are equal	`x == y`
`!=`	Not Equal	Checks if two operands are not equal	`x != y`
`>`	Greater Than	Checks if left operand is greater than right	`x > y`
`<`	Less Than	Checks if left operand is less than right	`x < y`
`>=`	Greater Than or Equal	Checks if left operand is greater than or equal to right	`x >= y`
`<=`	Less Than or Equal	Checks if left operand is less than or equal to right	`x <= y`

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    int a = 5, b = 10;
    printf("a == b: %d\n", a == b);   // Output: 0 (false)
    printf("a < b: %d\n", a < b);     // Output: 1 (true)

    return 0;
}

Logical Operators

Logical operators combine Boolean expressions.

Operator	Description	Example
`&&`	Logical AND	`x < 5 && x < 10`
`\|\|`	Logical OR	`x < 5 \|\| x < 4`
`!`	Logical NOT	`!(x < 5 && x < 10)`

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    int x = 3;
    printf("x < 5 && x < 10: %d\n", x < 5 && x < 10);   // Output: 1 (true)
    printf("x < 5 || x < 2: %d\n", x < 5 || x < 2);     // Output: 1 (true)

    return 0;
}

Bitwise Operators

Bitwise operators perform operations on bits of integers.

Operator	Name	Description	Example
`&`	AND	Sets each bit to 1 if both bits are 1	`x & y`
`\|`	OR	Sets each bit to 1 if one of two bits is 1	`x \| y`
`^`	XOR	Sets each bit to 1 if only one of two bits is 1	`x ^ y`
`~`	NOT	Inverts all the bits	`~x`
`<<`	Left Shift	Shifts bits to the left	`x << 2`
`>>`	Right Shift	Shifts bits to the right	`x >> 2`

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    int x = 5, y = 3;
    printf("x & y: %d\n", x & y);   // Output: 1
    printf("x | y: %d\n", x | y);   // Output: 7

    return 0;
}

Ternary Operator

The ternary operator ? : provides a shorthand for conditional expressions.

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    int age = 20;
    char* status = (age >= 18) ? "Adult" : "Minor";
    printf("Status: %s\n", status);   // Output: Adult

    return 0;
}

`sizeof` Operator

The sizeof operator in C is used to determine the size of a variable or data type in bytes.

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    int size_of_int = sizeof(int);
    printf("Size of int: %zu bytes\n", size_of_int);  // Output: Size of int: 4 bytes

    return 0;
}

`&` Address-of Operator

The & operator in C returns the memory address of a variable.

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    int x = 10;
    int *ptr = &x;  // ptr now holds the address of x
    printf("Address of x: %p\n", (void *)ptr);  // Output: Address of x: 0x7ffee24a7a98

    return 0;
}

`*` Dereference Operator

The * operator in C is used to access the value stored at the address pointed to by a pointer.

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    int y = 10;
    int *ptr = &y;  // ptr now holds the address of y
    int value = *ptr;  // Dereferencing ptr to get the value stored at ptr (which is y)
    printf("Value of y: %d\n", value);  // Output: Value of y: 10

    return 0;
}

`->` Arrow Operator

The -> operator in C is used to access members of a structure or union through a pointer.

#include <stdio.h>

struct Person {
    char name[20];
    int age;
};

int main() {
    struct Person person = {"John", 25};
    struct Person *ptrPerson = &person;  // ptrPerson now points to the person structure

    printf("Name: %s\n", ptrPerson->name);  // Accessing name using arrow operator
    printf("Age: %d\n", ptrPerson->age);    // Accessing age using arrow operator

    return 0;
}

If-Else Statements in C

The if-else statement in C is used for decision-making, allowing different blocks of code to be executed based on whether a specified condition evaluates to true or false.

Syntax

if (condition) {
    // Block of code to be executed if the condition is true
} else {
    // Block of code to be executed if the condition is false
}

if: The if keyword is followed by parentheses () containing the condition to be evaluated. If the condition is true, the code inside the curly braces {} following if is executed.
else: The else keyword is optional. If the if condition evaluates to false, the code inside the curly braces {} following else is executed.

Example

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    int num = 10;

    if (num > 0) {
        printf("%d is positive.\n", num);
    } else {
        printf("%d is not positive.\n", num);
    }

    return 0;
}

Output:

10 is positive.

Multiple `if-else` Statements

You can use multiple if-else statements to check multiple conditions sequentially.

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    int num = 0;

    if (num > 0) {
        printf("%d is positive.\n", num);
    } else if (num < 0) {
        printf("%d is negative.\n", num);
    } else {
        printf("%d is zero.\n", num);
    }

    return 0;
}

Output:

0 is zero.

Nested `if-else` Statements

You can nest if-else statements within each other to create more complex decision structures.

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    int num = 10;

    if (num > 0) {
        if (num % 2 == 0) {
            printf("%d is positive and even.\n", num);
        } else {
            printf("%d is positive and odd.\n", num);
        }
    } else if (num < 0) {
        printf("%d is negative.\n", num);
    } else {
        printf("%d is zero.\n", num);
    }

    return 0;
}

Output:

10 is positive and even.

`if` Statement Without `else`

The else part of the if-else statement is optional. If omitted, the code block associated with if is executed only if the condition is true.

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    int num = 0;

    if (num > 0) {
        printf("%d is positive.\n", num);
    }

    return 0;
}

Note:
In C, numbers (int and float types) are evaluated in a boolean context where any non-zero value is considered true, and 0 (zero) is considered false. For example, if (num) evaluates num as true if it's non-zero, and if (f) evaluates f as true if it's non-zero.

Loops in C

Loops in C are used to execute a block of code repeatedly based on a condition. C supports three types of loops:

while Loop
for Loop
do-while Loop

1. `while` Loop

The while loop repeatedly executes a target statement as long as a given condition is true.

Syntax:

while (condition) {
    // statement(s) to be executed as long as the condition is true
}

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    int count = 1;

    while (count <= 5) {
        printf("Count: %d\n", count);
        count++;
    }

    return 0;
}

Output:

Count: 1
Count: 2
Count: 3
Count: 4
Count: 5

2. `for` Loop

The for loop is used when the number of iterations is known beforehand.

Syntax:

for (initialization; condition; increment/decrement) {
    // statement(s) to be executed repeatedly until the condition becomes false
}

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {
        printf("Iteration: %d\n", i);
    }

    return 0;
}

Output:

Iteration: 1
Iteration: 2
Iteration: 3
Iteration: 4
Iteration: 5

3. `do-while` Loop

The do-while loop is similar to the while loop, except that it executes the block of code at least once, and then repeats the loop as long as a specified condition is true.

Syntax:

do {
    // statement(s) to be executed at least once
} while (condition);

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    int num = 1;

    do {
        printf("Number: %d\n", num);
        num++;
    } while (num <= 5);

    return 0;
}

Output:

Number: 1
Number: 2
Number: 3
Number: 4
Number: 5

Control Statements in Loops

break Statement: Terminates the loop immediately, and control passes to the next statement following the loop.
continue Statement: Skips the current iteration and proceeds to the next iteration of the loop.

Example of `break`:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {
        if (i == 3) {
            break;  // Exit the loop when i is 3
        }
        printf("Iteration: %d\n", i);
    }

    return 0;
}

Output:

Iteration: 1
Iteration: 2

Example of `continue`:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {
        if (i == 3) {
            continue;  // Skip iteration when i is 3
        }
        printf("Iteration: %d\n", i);
    }

    return 0;
}

Output:

Iteration: 1
Iteration: 2
Iteration: 4
Iteration: 5

Pointers in C

Pointers are variables that store memory addresses of other variables. They allow efficient manipulation of data and dynamic memory allocation in C.

1. Declaring and Initializing Pointers

A pointer declaration follows this syntax:

type *ptr;

type: Data type of the variable the pointer points to.
*: Indicates that ptr is a pointer.

Example:

int *ptr;  // Pointer to an integer

2. Initializing Pointers

Pointers can be initialized to point to a specific variable or memory location using the address-of operator &.

Example:

int num = 10;
int *ptr = &num;  // ptr now holds the address of num

3. Accessing Value at a Pointer

To access the value stored at the memory address pointed to by a pointer, use the dereference operator *.

Example:

int num = 10;
int *ptr = &num;

printf("Value at ptr: %d\n", *ptr);  // Output: 10

4. Pointer Arithmetic

Pointers in C support arithmetic operations, which can be useful for navigating through arrays or dynamically allocated memory.

Increment/Decrement: Moves the pointer to the next or previous memory location of the same data type.

Example:

int arr[3] = {10, 20, 30};
int *ptr = arr;  // Points to the first element of arr

ptr++;  // Moves ptr to the next element
printf("Second element: %d\n", *ptr);  // Output: 20

5. Pointers and Arrays

In C, arrays are closely related to pointers. An array name can be used as a pointer to its first element.

Example:

int arr[3] = {10, 20, 30};
int *ptr = arr;  // Points to the first element of arr

printf("First element: %d\n", *ptr);  // Output: 10
ptr++;  // Move to the next element
printf("Second element: %d\n", *ptr);  // Output: 20

6. Pointers and Functions

Pointers are often used in function arguments to pass variables by reference, allowing functions to modify the original variables.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

void square(int *ptr) {
    *ptr = (*ptr) * (*ptr);  // Squares the value pointed by ptr
}

int main() {
    int num = 5;
    square(&num);  // Pass num's address to square function
    printf("Squared value: %d\n", num);  // Output: 25

    return 0;
}

7. Null Pointers

A null pointer is a pointer that does not point to any memory location. It's commonly used to indicate that the pointer isn't currently pointing to valid data.

Example:

int *ptr = NULL;  // ptr is a null pointer

8. Void Pointers

Void pointers (void *) are pointers that can point to any data type, but they cannot be directly dereferenced because their type is unspecified.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
    int num = 10;
    float f = 3.14;
    char ch = 'A';

    void *ptr;

    ptr = &num;
    printf("Value at ptr pointing to int: %d\n", *(int *)ptr);

    ptr = &f;
    printf("Value at ptr pointing to float: %.2f\n", *(float *)ptr);

    ptr = &ch;
    printf("Value at ptr pointing to char: %c\n", *(char *)ptr);

    return 0;
}

Output:

Value at ptr pointing to int: 10
Value at ptr pointing to float: 3.14
Value at ptr pointing to char: A

Arrays as Pointers in C

In C, arrays and pointers are closely related concepts. Understanding how arrays decay into pointers and how pointers can be used to manipulate arrays is crucial for effective C programming.

1. Arrays and Pointers Relationship

Arrays in C can decay into pointers. When you use the array name in an expression, it often decays into a pointer to its first element.

Example:

int arr[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
int *ptr = arr;  // arr decays into a pointer to its first element

Here, ptr points to the first element of the array arr.

2. Accessing Array Elements via Pointers

You can access array elements using pointer arithmetic. This is often more flexible than using array indexing because pointers can be incremented or decremented to traverse through the array.

Example:

int arr[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
int *ptr = arr;  // Points to the first element of arr

printf("First element: %d\n", *ptr);    // Output: 1
printf("Second element: %d\n", *(ptr + 1));  // Output: 2

3. Pointer Arithmetic with Arrays

Pointer arithmetic allows you to navigate through an array using pointer operations like addition (+), subtraction (-), and dereferencing (*).

Example:

int arr[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
int *ptr = arr;  // Points to the first element of arr

for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
    printf("Element at index %d: %d\n", i, *(ptr + i));
}

4. Modifying Array Elements via Pointers

You can modify array elements using pointers just like with array indexing.

Example:

int arr[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
int *ptr = arr;  // Points to the first element of arr

*(ptr + 2) = 10;  // Modify the third element of arr

printf("Modified third element: %d\n", arr[2]);  // Output: 10

5. Passing Arrays to Functions using Pointers

Arrays are commonly passed to functions in C using pointers. This allows functions to modify array elements directly.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

void printArray(int *arr, int size) {
    for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
        printf("%d ", arr[i]);
    }
    printf("\n");
}

int main() {
    int arr[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
    printArray(arr, 5);  // Pass array and its size to function using pointer
    return 0;
}

Pointers as Arrays in C

In C, pointers and arrays can often be used interchangeably due to their close relationship. Pointers can simulate array behavior, allowing direct access to memory locations.

1. Initializing Pointers to Arrays

Pointers can be initialized to point to the first element of an array. This allows for accessing array elements using pointer notation.

Example:

int arr[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
int *ptr = arr;  // ptr points to the first element of arr

2. Accessing Array Elements using Pointers

Once initialized, pointers can be used to access array elements just like array indexing.

Example:

int arr[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
int *ptr = arr;  // ptr points to the first element of arr

printf("First element: %d\n", ptr[0]);   // Output: 1
printf("Second element: %d\n", ptr[1]);  // Output: 2

3. Pointer Arithmetic with Arrays

Pointers support arithmetic operations that can simulate array indexing. This is useful for iterating through arrays or accessing elements.

Example:

int arr[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
int *ptr = arr;  // ptr points to the first element of arr

for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
    printf("Element at index %d: %d\n", i, ptr[i]);
}

4. Modifying Array Elements via Pointers

Arrays can be modified using pointers just like with array indexing.

Example:

int arr[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
int *ptr = arr;  // ptr points to the first element of arr

ptr[2] = 10;  // Modify the third element of arr

printf("Modified third element: %d\n", arr[2]);  // Output: 10

Functions in C

Functions in C are blocks of code that perform a specific task. They provide modularity and reusability in programs by allowing code to be organized into manageable units.

1. Function Declaration and Definition

Syntax:

return_type function_name(parameter1, parameter2, parameter3, ...) {
    // Function body
    // Statements
    return expression;  // Optional return statement
}

return_type: Specifies the type of value returned by the function (void if no return value).
function_name: Name of the function.
parameter_list: List of parameters (inputs) the function accepts.
return: Optional statement to return a value to the calling code.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

// Function declaration
int add(int a, int b);

int main() {
    int result;
    // Function call
    result = add(10, 20);
    printf("Sum: %d\n", result);
    return 0;
}

// Function definition
int add(int a, int b) {
    return a + b;  // Return sum of a and b
}

2. Function Prototypes

Function prototypes declare the function signature (return type, name, and parameters) before its actual definition. This allows the compiler to verify function calls and enforce type checking.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

// Function prototype
int add(int, int);

int main() {
    int result;
    result = add(10, 20);  // Function call
    printf("Sum: %d\n", result);
    return 0;
}

// Function definition
int add(int a, int b) {
    return a + b;  // Return sum of a and b
}

3. Function Parameters

Functions can accept parameters (inputs) that are passed during function calls. Parameters allow functions to operate on different data each time they are called.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

// Function declaration with parameters
void greet(char name[]);

int main() {
    char userName[] = "John";
    greet(userName);  // Pass userName to function
    return 0;
}

// Function definition
void greet(char name[]) {
    printf("Hello, %s!\n", name);
}

4. Return Statement

Functions can return a value using the return statement. The return type specifies the data type of the value returned by the function. If no return value is needed, the return type is void.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

// Function declaration with return type int
int square(int num);

int main() {
    int result = square(5);  // Function call
    printf("Square: %d\n", result);
    return 0;
}

// Function definition
int square(int num) {
    return num * num;  // Return the square of num
}

5. Void Functions

Functions with void return type do not return any value. They are used for tasks that do not require a return value, such as printing output or performing operations without returning a result.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

// Function declaration with void return type
void displayMessage();

int main() {
    displayMessage();  // Function call
    return 0;
}

// Function definition
void displayMessage() {
    printf("Welcome to C Programming!\n");
}

6. Recursive Functions

Recursive functions are functions that call themselves either directly or indirectly. They are useful for solving problems that can be broken down into smaller, similar sub-problems.

Example (Factorial):

#include <stdio.h>

// Function declaration for factorial calculation
int factorial(int n);

int main() {
    int num = 5;
    printf("Factorial of %d = %d\n", num, factorial(num));
    return 0;
}

// Function definition for factorial calculation
int factorial(int n) {
    if (n == 0 || n == 1)
        return 1;
    else
        return n * factorial(n - 1);  // Recursive call
}

7. Function Pointers

Function pointers hold the address of functions. They allow functions to be passed as arguments to other functions or stored in data structures, enabling dynamic function calls.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

// Function declaration
int add(int a, int b);

int main() {
    int (*ptr)(int, int);  // Declare function pointer
    ptr = add;  // Assign address of add function to ptr

    int result = ptr(10, 20);  // Call add using function pointer
    printf("Sum: %d\n", result);
    return 0;
}

// Function definition
int add(int a, int b) {
    return a + b;  // Return sum of a and b
}

8. Variable Number of Arguments

Functions in C can accept a variable number of arguments using ellipses (...). This feature is commonly used in functions like printf() and scanf().

Example:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdarg.h>

// Function declaration with variable arguments
double average(int num, ...);

int main() {
    double avg1 = average(3, 10, 20, 30);
    double avg2 = average(5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5);

    printf("Average 1: %.2f\n", avg1);
    printf("Average 2: %.2f\n", avg2);

    return 0;
}

// Function definition with variable arguments
double average(int num, ...) {
    va_list args;
    double sum = 0.0;

    va_start(args, num);  // Initialize args to retrieve additional arguments
    for (int i = 0; i < num; i++) {
        sum += va_arg(args, int);  // Retrieve each argument
    }
    va_end(args);  // Clean up variable argument list

    return sum / num;  // Calculate average
}

9. Passing Function as Argument

In C, functions can be passed as arguments to other functions. This feature allows for flexibility and enables functions to operate on different behaviors based on the function passed.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

// Function that takes another function as argument
void performOperation(int (*operation)(int, int), int a, int b) {
    int result = operation(a, b);
    printf("Result: %d\n", result);
}

// Functions to be used as arguments
int add(int a, int b) {
    return a + b;
}

int subtract(int a, int b) {
    return a - b;
}

int main() {
    // Pass function 'add' as argument
    performOperation(add, 10, 5);

    // Pass function 'subtract' as argument
    performOperation(subtract, 10, 5);

    return 0;
}

Structs in C

In C programming, a struct (structure) is a user-defined data type that allows you to group together data items of different types under a single name. It enables you to create complex data structures to organize and manipulate related pieces of data efficiently.

1. Declaring a Struct

Syntax:

struct struct_name {
    // Member variables (fields)
    data_type member1;
    data_type member2;
    // ... more members
};

struct_name: Name of the struct.
data_type: Data type of each member variable.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

// Declare a struct
struct Person {
    char name[50];
    int age;
    float height;
};

int main() {
    // Declare struct variables
    struct Person person1;
    struct Person person2;

    // Accessing and modifying struct members
    strcpy(person1.name, "John");
    person1.age = 30;
    person1.height = 5.8;

    // Displaying struct members
    printf("Person 1: Name=%s, Age=%d, Height=%.2f\n", person1.name, person1.age, person1.height);

    return 0;
}

2. Accessing Struct Members

Struct members are accessed using the dot (.) operator.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

struct Point {
    int x;
    int y;
};

int main() {
    struct Point p1 = {10, 20};

    // Accessing struct members
    printf("Coordinates: x=%d, y=%d\n", p1.x, p1.y);

    return 0;
}

3. Initializing Structs

Structs can be initialized at the time of declaration or later using assignment.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

struct Rectangle {
    int length;
    int width;
};

int main() {
    // Initializing struct at declaration
    struct Rectangle rect1 = {10, 5};

    // Initializing struct later
    struct Rectangle rect2;
    rect2.length = 15;
    rect2.width = 8;

    // Accessing and displaying struct members
    printf("Rectangle 1: Length=%d, Width=%d\n", rect1.length, rect1.width);
    printf("Rectangle 2: Length=%d, Width=%d\n", rect2.length, rect2.width);

    return 0;
}

4. Nested Structs

Structs can contain other structs as members, enabling the creation of hierarchical data structures.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

struct Date {
    int day;
    int month;
    int year;
};

struct Employee {
    char name[50];
    struct Date birthDate;
    float salary;
};

int main() {
    struct Employee emp1 = {"Alice", {15, 7, 1990}, 50000.0};

    // Accessing nested struct members
    printf("Employee: Name=%s, Birth Date=%d/%d/%d, Salary=%.2f\n",
           emp1.name, emp1.birthDate.day, emp1.birthDate.month, emp1.birthDate.year, emp1.salary);

    return 0;
}

5. Typedef for Structs

typedef can be used to create an alias (or shorthand) for structs.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

typedef struct {
    int hours;
    int minutes;
    int seconds;
} Time;

int main() {
    Time t1 = {10, 30, 45};

    // Accessing typedef struct members
    printf("Time: %d:%d:%d\n", t1.hours, t1.minutes, t1.seconds);

    return 0;
}

6. Passing Structs to Functions

Structs can be passed to functions either by value or by reference (using pointers).

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

struct Student {
    char name[50];
    int rollNumber;
};

void displayStudent(struct Student s) {
    printf("Student: Name=%s, Roll Number=%d\n", s.name, s.rollNumber);
}

int main() {
    struct Student stu1 = {"Emma", 101};

    // Passing struct to function by value
    displayStudent(stu1);

    return 0;
}

7. Pointer to Struct

You can create pointers to structs and access struct members using arrow (->) operator.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

struct Book {
    char title[100];
    char author[50];
    float price;
};

int main() {
    struct Book book1 = {"C Programming", "Dennis Ritchie", 39.95};
    struct Book *ptrBook;

    // Pointer to struct
    ptrBook = &book1;

    // Accessing struct members using pointer
    printf("Book: Title=%s, Author=%s, Price=%.2f\n",
           ptrBook->title, ptrBook->author, ptrBook->price);

    return 0;
}

8. Size of Struct

The sizeof operator can be used to determine the size of a struct in bytes.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

struct Car {
    char model[50];
    int year;
    float price;
};

int main() {
    struct Car car1;

    printf("Size of struct Car: %lu bytes\n", sizeof(car1));

    return 0;
}

9. Dynamic Memory Allocation for Structs

You can allocate memory for structs dynamically using malloc, calloc, or realloc functions.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

struct Point {
    int x;
    int y;
};

int main() {
    struct Point *ptrPoint;

    // Allocate memory dynamically for struct Point
    ptrPoint = (struct Point *)malloc(sizeof(struct Point));

    if (ptrPoint == NULL) {
        printf("Memory allocation failed.\n");
        return 1;
    }

    // Accessing and assigning values to struct members
    ptrPoint->x = 10;
    ptrPoint->y = 20;

    // Displaying values
    printf("Coordinates: x=%d, y=%d\n", ptrPoint->x, ptrPoint->y);

    // Free dynamically allocated memory
    free(ptrPoint);

    return 0;
}

C Basics

C

Creating Variables

Syntax for Variable Declaration and Initialization

Rules for Variable Names

Variable Scope

Constants

Default Values

Declare Many Variables with or without Values

One Value to Multiple Variables

Creating Comments

1. Single-Line Comments

2. Multi-Line Comments

Example Usage

Basic Input and Output in C

1. Output using printf

2. Input using scanf

Important Points

Using getchar and putchar for Character Input and Output

Data Types in C

1. Primitive Data Types

Integer Types

Floating-Point Types

Character Type

Boolean Type

2. Derived Data Types

Array

Pointer

Structure

Booleans in C

1. Boolean Representation

2. Boolean Evaluation

3. Null Pointer Evaluation

Type Casting: Implicit and Explicit

1. Implicit Type Casting (Automatic Type Conversion)

2. Explicit Type Casting (Type Conversion)

Arrays in C

1. Declaring Arrays

Syntax:

Example:

2. Initializing Arrays

Example:

3. Accessing Array Elements

Example:

4. Modifying Array Elements

Example:

5. Multidimensional Arrays

Example:

6. Passing Arrays to Functions

Example:

Strings in C

1. Declaring and Initializing Strings

2. String Input with scanf()

3. String Functions

4. Handling String Input Safely

5. Null-Terminated Strings

Operators in C

Arithmetic Operators

Assignment Operators

Comparison Operators

Logical Operators

Bitwise Operators

Ternary Operator

sizeof Operator

& Address-of Operator

* Dereference Operator

-> Arrow Operator

If-Else Statements in C

Syntax

Example

Multiple if-else Statements

Nested if-else Statements

if Statement Without else

Loops in C

1. while Loop

Syntax:

Example:

2. for Loop

Syntax:

Example:

1. Output using `printf`

2. Input using `scanf`

Using `getchar` and `putchar` for Character Input and Output

2. String Input with `scanf()`

`sizeof` Operator

`&` Address-of Operator

`*` Dereference Operator

`->` Arrow Operator

Multiple `if-else` Statements

Nested `if-else` Statements

`if` Statement Without `else`

1. `while` Loop

2. `for` Loop

3. `do-while` Loop

Example of `break`:

Example of `continue`: